Post by SoSophie37 on Nov 16, 2014 16:20:51 GMT
Nucleic acids are better known to us in the form of both a deoxiribonucleotide (DNA) and a ribonucleotide (RNA) – necessary for our very existence. They are large biological molecules made from monomers (nucleotides) and these nucleotides are made up of four nitrogen containing nucleo-bases, a five carbon sugar and a phosphate group 'backbone'. Dependant on which type of sugar is within these nucleotides depicts whether an RNA or DNA polymer is formed. Ribose is the five carbon sugar within RNA and 2-deoxyribose is the five carbon sugar within DNA - with ribose being least stable that deoxyribose (NCS Pearson, 2014). Another difference is that DNA is double stranded, whilst RNA is single stranded and also has a uracil rather than the thymine found in DNA (Diffen, 2014). Which leads to base pairing in order to build complete DNA structures..
DNA's four nitrogen bases are adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine whilst RNA's four nitrogen bases are adenine, uracil, cytosine and guanine (another structural difference between DNA and RNA (Kimball. J, 2006).
Focusing on the bases within DNA, the base structures are similar - with adenine and guanine being similar and stated as a purine (double-ringed chemical structure) and thymine and cytosine's structural similarities labelling them as a pyrimidine(single-ringed chemical structure) (DNA Learning Centre, 2014). A purine links with a pyrimidine due to their fit (noticed by Watson and Crick), however this 'lock and key' hydrogen bond permitting fit is only available between C-G and T-A. This was founded by a man named Chargaff as the C-G and T-A base pairs were the only available in the lock and key fit - C-A and T-G did not show to be paired anywhere and this was due to them not being able to pair together as there was no 'lock and key' fit between them - their molecules are too far apart to allow for a successful hydrogen bond to occur (Freeman. W, 2000).
Hydrogen bonds link the base pairs - two hydrogen bonds in T-A and three hydrogen bonds in C-G. The hydrogen bonds allow for paired bases to be joined in formation to build the double stranded DNA but also allows for easy separation when transcription occurs (causing an mRNA copy of a DNA gene) (Boston University, 2014).
Whereas DNA can make copies of itself via a process known as replication, RNA is only made once transcription of the DNA has occurred following the RNA polymerase enzyme unzipping the DNA to create mRNA and then zip the DNA back together again (Kovach. T, 2013). This process takes place within the nucleus of a cell and a section of DNA known as a 'structural gene' - the code for a specific protein - is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) in a process known as transcription - copying part of the DNA script if you like. Transcription is controlled by promoters and enhancers, along with silencers, to ensure the regulation of RNA synthesis (University of Leicester, 2014). The mRNA now has the copy of a specific genes' protein 'recipe' and will tidy up this information, removing introns (they get 'spliced') and amending the ends of the strand to protect it (Bailey. R., 2014). It will travel from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and with the help of ribosomes will produce the specific protein (key word being 'messenger' RNA- the 'recipe' it carries is read by the ribosome and used to produce the correct protein from the original DNA's gene protein code). The whole DNA>RNA>Protein process is known as the central dogma in biology (Anderson. P., 2012).
Simply put, protein biosynthesis is a multiple step process in which proteins are generated by cells (Freeman. W, 2000). Nucleic acids play a role in protein biosynthesis as DNA is transcribed into RNA, which goes from the nucleus of the cell to the cytoplasm outside, meeting a ribosome which will then, like a little factory, use the RNA's genetic information/'recipe' to produce a string of amino acids which come together to build a polypeptide chain which results in structure - a protein. Every three letters on the mRNA codes for one amino acid. Therefore the roles of the nucleic acids in protein synthesis are that they give the genetic information to the organelles regarding what is needed to be produced by the cell (Shadowlabs, 2008).
The structural differences between DNA and RNA have already been covered above (differing 5-carbon sugars and amount of strands along with nitrogen bases). However, there are various types of RNA - the three main types being: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Each variety of RNA plays a different role in protein synthesis and so structurally differ from one another with the same build up which ultimately differs to DNA in the same way as initially discussed (GenMed, 2014).
The structure of protein is very different to that of DNA and RNA, however, the structure of protein is relevant to DNA and RNA, as they are responsible for its production, in the central dogma of biology (DNA>RNA>Protein). Below is an image which shows the structure of protein, which following the translation process begins as many amino acids which form into the protein and its quaternary structure
. This goes to show the consumtion of amino acids is what is necessary for us to create proteins and aid in muscle growth- eating whole proteins (animal meat/nuts) is not directly relevant as the body has to go a length to break them whole proteins into amino acids to be used. Amino acids are found in our diet and used in the central dogma of biology to allow us to be.. us
The production of proteins, following the information above on the central dogma, cannot be continuous with no control (over or under production will have negative impact on the body and so a control mechanism is required) (Anderson. P, 2012). In order to maintain the correct level of protein production, there is a mechanism called 'gene regulation'. This means that (as detailed above for the central dogma of biology) the proteins which are made through protein biosynthesis are only made when required (Cooper. G., 2000). This is an amazingly intricate system and begins on the DNA strand at the placement where DNA polymerase (enzyme) may (or may not) be allowed to attach and create the mRNA which leads to gene expression and protein creation. If the DNA polymerase can attach to the DNA chain it will produce the mRNA, if it cannot attach then it will not (at that moment) be able to begin transcription of that DNA gene (University of Leicester, 2014). The regulation of gene expression by the transcription and translation regulating within the cell are important in ensuring transcription and translation processes (central dogma) are carried out beneficially. These processes are highly important as the expression of genes directly affect our survival. Some genes continually express to maintain our basic metabolic functions and assist in homeostasis of the body. Other genes are only expressed when required by the cell to participate in the process of cell differentiation, or result from these processes to balance it (University of Leicester, 2014).
DNA location within the cell
:
Prokaryotic- Cytoplasm (free flowing) and bundle together to form a dark patch within the cell known as the nucleoid (Shmoop,2014).
[Can also be found in plasmid DNA form but not all bacteria have this].
Eukaryotic - Nucleus
, Mitochondria
, Chloroplasts (in plants)
Reference List
Adam-Day. S, 2012. Protein structure. Available from: alevelnotes.com/Protein-Structure/61 [Accessed 30 May 2014].
Addgene, 2014. Bacterial transformation. Available from: www.addgene.org/plasmid-protocols/bacterial-transformation/ [Accessed 23 October 2014].
Anderson. P., 2012. AP Biology Lab 6: Molecular Biology. Video. Available from: [Accessed 31 October 2014].
Anderson. P., 2012. Transcription and translation. Video. Available from: [Accessed 3 November 2014].
apsu.edu, 2013. Cell organelles and cytoskeleton. Available from: apbrwww5.apsu.edu/thompsonj/Anatomy%20&%20Physiology/2010/2010%20Exam%20Reviews/Exam%201%20Review/Ch03%20Cell%20Organelles%20&%20Cytoskeleton.htm [Accessed 25 November 2013].
Bailey. R., 2014. Protein synthesis: Messenger RNA modification. Available from: biology.about.com/od/cellularprocesses/ss/protein-synthesis-translation.htm [Accessed 5 November 2014].
Bartha. G., 2014. Transformation efficiency: pGLO. Video. Available from: [Accessed 31 October 2014].
biology.com, 2013. Organelles. Available from: biology.tutorvista.com/animal-and-plant-cells/organelles.html [Accessed 30 November 2013].
biology.com, 2013. Prokaryotes. available from: biology.about.com/od/cellanatomy/ss/prokaryotes.htm [Accessed 30 November 2013].
biologyreference.com, 2013. Golgi. Available from: www.biologyreference.com/Fo-Gr/Golgi.html [Accessed 30 November 2013].
Blaber. M., 2004. Genetic transformation (using bacteria and the pGLO plasmid). Available from: www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/BCH4053l/Lecture07/Lecture07.htm [Accessed 1 November 2014].
Boston University, 2014. Base pairs. Available from: tandem.bu.edu/knex/base.pairs.knex.html [Accessed 11 June 2014].
Brooklyn College, 2014. What are proteins? Available from: academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/biology/bio4fv/page/3d_prot.htm [Accessed 3 November 2014].
Carr. S, 2011. Friedrich Miescher (1844-1895) on nuclein. Available from: www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Miescher_on_nuclein.html [Accessed 28 May 2014].
cliffsnotes.com, 2013. Prokaryote and Eukaryote cell structure. Available from: www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/biology/biology/the-biology-of-cells/prokaryote-and-eukaryote-cell-structure [Accessed 30 November 2013].
cnx.org, 2013. Eukaryotic cells. Available from: cnx.org/content/m47172/1.2/ [Accessed 30 November 2013].
cod.edu, 2004. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Available from: www.cod.edu/people/faculty/fancher/prokeuk.htm [Accessed 30 November 2013].
Cooper. G., 2000. The cell: A molecular approach. 2nd edition. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9914/ [Accessed 1 November 2014].
Diffen, 2014. DNA vs. RNA. Available from: www.diffen.com/difference/DNA_vs_RNA [Accessed 111 June 2014].
diffen.com, 2013. Eukaryotic cell vs. Prokaryotic cell. Available from: www.diffen.com/difference/Eukaryotic_Cell_vs_Prokaryotic_Cell [Accessed 30 November 2013].
DNA learning centre, 2014. Base pairing interactive, interactive 2D animation. Available from: www.dnalc.org/view/15888-Base-pairing-interactive-interactive-2D-animation.html [Accessed 11 June 2014].
Dr. Blaber. M., 2004. Genetic transformation (using bacteria and the pGLO plasmid). Available from: www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/BCH4053l/Lecture07/Lecture07.htm [Accessed 30 October 2014].
emich.edu, 2013. Cells. Available from: people.emich.edu/pbogle/PHED_200/outlines/chapter_03/outline.htm [Accessed 30 November 2013].
Flanagan. E., 2014. Model organisms. Available from: www.fastbleep.com/biology-notes/33/110/815 [Accessed 2 November 2014].
Freeman. H., 2000. Bacterial transformation. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21993/ [Accessed 23 October 2014].
Freeman. W, 2000. Structure of DNA. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21786/ [Accessed 11 June 2014].
Freeman. W, 2000. The three roles of RNA in protein synthesis. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21603/ [Accessed 11 June 2014].
Froger. A., Hall. J., 2007. Transformation of plasmid DNA into E.coli using heat shock method. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2557105/ [Accessed 31 October 2014].
GenMed, 2014. Fundamentals of genetics. Available from: genmed.yolasite.com/fundamentals-of-genetics.php [Accessed 11 June 2014].
Godfrey-Smith. P., Sterelyn. K., 2008. Biological information. Available from: plato.stanford.edu/entries/information-biological/#GenCod [Accessed 3 November 2014].
Gregory. M., 2014. Bacterial transformation lab. Available from: faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20101/bio%20101%20laboratory/bacterial%20transformation/bacteria.htm [Accessed 31 October 2014].
hyperphysics.edu, 2000. Ribosomes. Available from: hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/ribosome.html [Accessed 30 November 2013].
JoVE, 2014. Bacterial transformation: The heat shock method. Video. Available from: www.jove.com/science-education/5059/bacterial-transformation-the-heat-shock-method [Accessed 31 October 2014].
Kimball. J, 2006. Base pairing. Available from: users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/BasePairing.html [Accessed 11 June 2014].
Kovach. T., 2013. The central dogma of molecular biology. Video. Available from: [Accessed 2 November 2014].
ks.edu, 2008. Bacterial flagellum. Available from: www.ks.uiuc.edu/Research/flagellum/ [Accessed 30 November 2013].
Learnsomescience.com, 2010. Prokaryotic cell arrangements & anatomy. Available from: learnsomescience.com/microbiology/prokaryotes-bacteria-and-prokaryotic-cell-anatomy/ [Accessed 2 December 2013].
methuen.ma.us, 2007. Structure and function. Available from: www.methuen.k12.ma.us/mnmelan/chapter_7.cell%20structure%20and%20function.htm [Accessed 2 December 2013].
methuen.ma.us, 2007. Structure and function. Available from: www.methuen.k12.ma.us/mnmelan/chapter_7.cell%20structure%20and%20function.htm [Accessed 2 December 2013].
micro.magnet.edu, 2013. Mitochondria. Available from: micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/mitochondria/mitochondria.html [Accessed 30 November 2013].
microbeworld.com, 2012. Bacteria. Available from: www.microbeworld.org/types-of-microbes/bacteria [Accessed 29 November 2013].
Microbiologyinpictures.com, 2011. Morphology of bacterial cells. Available from: www.microbiologyinpictures.com/morphology%20of%20bacterial%20cells.html [Accessed 5 December 2013].
microscopemaster.com, 2013. Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes. Available from: www.microscopemaster.com/prokaryotes.html [Accessed 30 November 2013].
Midlandstech.edu, 2011. The prokaryotic cell. Available from: classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/courses/bio225/chap04/lecture2.htm [Accessed 3 December 2013].
mwsu-bio101.com, 2008. Principles of biology. Available from: mwsu-bio101.ning.com/profiles/blogs/2263214:BlogPost:2603 [Accessed 22 November 2013].
nature.com, 2013. Plasmid/ plasmids. Available from: www.nature.com/scitable/definition/plasmid-plasmids-28 [Accessed 30 November 2013].
ncbi.gov, 2006. The selective value of bacteria shape. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1594593/ [6 December 2013].
ncbi.nih.gov, 2013. Theory of organelle biogenesis: A historical perspective. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK6609/ [Accessed 5 December 2013].
NCS Pearson, 2014. Nucleic acid function. Available from: chemistry.tutorvista.com/biochemistry/nucleic-acid-function.html [Accessed 28 May 2014].
oocities.org, 2009. Ribosome. Available from: www.oocities.org/spariloo/ [Accessed 30 November 2013].
Promega, 2014. How are competent bacterial cells transformed with a plasmid? Available from: www.promega.co.uk/resources/pubhub/enotes/how-are-competent-bacterial-cells-transformed-with-a-plasmid/ [Accessed 4 November 2014].
Reusch. W, 2013. Nucleic acids. Available from: www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/virttxtjml/nucacids.htm [Accessed 28 May 2014].
scienceprofonline.com, 2013. Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic: Two types of biological cells. Available from: www.scienceprofonline.com/cell-biology/prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-two-types-of-biological-cells.html [Accessed 1 December 2013].
s-cool.co.uk, 2013. Cells and organelles. Available from: www.s-cool.co.uk/category/subjects/a-level/biology/cells-and-organelles [Accessed 30 November 2013].
Shadowlabs, 2008. From DNA to protein. Video. Available from: [Accessed 11 june 2014].
Shmoop, 2014. Prokaryotic cell structure and function. Available from: www.shmoop.com/biology-cells/prokaryotic-cells.html [Accessed 7 November 2014].
shmoop.com, 2013. Prokaryotic cell structure and function. Available from: www.shmoop.com/biology-cells/prokaryotic-cells.html [November 30 2013].
Studyblue.com, 2013. Bacterial morphology. Available from: www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/microbiology-2420-exam-1-pt-2-ch1-3-14/deck/3101844 [Accessed 6 December 2013].
this-life-science.com, 2013. Centrioles. Available from: this-life-science.weebly.com/centrioles.html [Accessed 30 November 2013].
Threesology.org, 2011. Three basic bacteria (prokaryote cell) shapes. Available from: www.threesology.org/bio-physiological-3s-5.php [Accessed 1 December 2013].
uic.edu, 2013. Cells - structure and function. Available from: www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lectures/cells.htm [Accessed 2013].
University of Leicester, 2014. Gene expression and regulation. Available from: www2.le.ac.uk/departments/genetics/vgec/schoolscolleges/topics/geneexpression-regulation [Accessed 1 November 2014].
University of Waikato, 2007. Bacterial transformation. Available from: www.biotechlearn.org.nz/themes/dna_lab/bacterial_transformation [Accessed 23 October 2014].
Waikato University, 2007. DNA ligation. Available from: www.biotechlearn.org.nz/themes/dna_lab/dna_ligation [Accessed 2 November 2014].
DNA's four nitrogen bases are adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine whilst RNA's four nitrogen bases are adenine, uracil, cytosine and guanine (another structural difference between DNA and RNA (Kimball. J, 2006).
Focusing on the bases within DNA, the base structures are similar - with adenine and guanine being similar and stated as a purine (double-ringed chemical structure) and thymine and cytosine's structural similarities labelling them as a pyrimidine(single-ringed chemical structure) (DNA Learning Centre, 2014). A purine links with a pyrimidine due to their fit (noticed by Watson and Crick), however this 'lock and key' hydrogen bond permitting fit is only available between C-G and T-A. This was founded by a man named Chargaff as the C-G and T-A base pairs were the only available in the lock and key fit - C-A and T-G did not show to be paired anywhere and this was due to them not being able to pair together as there was no 'lock and key' fit between them - their molecules are too far apart to allow for a successful hydrogen bond to occur (Freeman. W, 2000).
Hydrogen bonds link the base pairs - two hydrogen bonds in T-A and three hydrogen bonds in C-G. The hydrogen bonds allow for paired bases to be joined in formation to build the double stranded DNA but also allows for easy separation when transcription occurs (causing an mRNA copy of a DNA gene) (Boston University, 2014).
Whereas DNA can make copies of itself via a process known as replication, RNA is only made once transcription of the DNA has occurred following the RNA polymerase enzyme unzipping the DNA to create mRNA and then zip the DNA back together again (Kovach. T, 2013). This process takes place within the nucleus of a cell and a section of DNA known as a 'structural gene' - the code for a specific protein - is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) in a process known as transcription - copying part of the DNA script if you like. Transcription is controlled by promoters and enhancers, along with silencers, to ensure the regulation of RNA synthesis (University of Leicester, 2014). The mRNA now has the copy of a specific genes' protein 'recipe' and will tidy up this information, removing introns (they get 'spliced') and amending the ends of the strand to protect it (Bailey. R., 2014). It will travel from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and with the help of ribosomes will produce the specific protein (key word being 'messenger' RNA- the 'recipe' it carries is read by the ribosome and used to produce the correct protein from the original DNA's gene protein code). The whole DNA>RNA>Protein process is known as the central dogma in biology (Anderson. P., 2012).
Simply put, protein biosynthesis is a multiple step process in which proteins are generated by cells (Freeman. W, 2000). Nucleic acids play a role in protein biosynthesis as DNA is transcribed into RNA, which goes from the nucleus of the cell to the cytoplasm outside, meeting a ribosome which will then, like a little factory, use the RNA's genetic information/'recipe' to produce a string of amino acids which come together to build a polypeptide chain which results in structure - a protein. Every three letters on the mRNA codes for one amino acid. Therefore the roles of the nucleic acids in protein synthesis are that they give the genetic information to the organelles regarding what is needed to be produced by the cell (Shadowlabs, 2008).
The structural differences between DNA and RNA have already been covered above (differing 5-carbon sugars and amount of strands along with nitrogen bases). However, there are various types of RNA - the three main types being: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Each variety of RNA plays a different role in protein synthesis and so structurally differ from one another with the same build up which ultimately differs to DNA in the same way as initially discussed (GenMed, 2014).
The structure of protein is very different to that of DNA and RNA, however, the structure of protein is relevant to DNA and RNA, as they are responsible for its production, in the central dogma of biology (DNA>RNA>Protein). Below is an image which shows the structure of protein, which following the translation process begins as many amino acids which form into the protein and its quaternary structure
. This goes to show the consumtion of amino acids is what is necessary for us to create proteins and aid in muscle growth- eating whole proteins (animal meat/nuts) is not directly relevant as the body has to go a length to break them whole proteins into amino acids to be used. Amino acids are found in our diet and used in the central dogma of biology to allow us to be.. us
The production of proteins, following the information above on the central dogma, cannot be continuous with no control (over or under production will have negative impact on the body and so a control mechanism is required) (Anderson. P, 2012). In order to maintain the correct level of protein production, there is a mechanism called 'gene regulation'. This means that (as detailed above for the central dogma of biology) the proteins which are made through protein biosynthesis are only made when required (Cooper. G., 2000). This is an amazingly intricate system and begins on the DNA strand at the placement where DNA polymerase (enzyme) may (or may not) be allowed to attach and create the mRNA which leads to gene expression and protein creation. If the DNA polymerase can attach to the DNA chain it will produce the mRNA, if it cannot attach then it will not (at that moment) be able to begin transcription of that DNA gene (University of Leicester, 2014). The regulation of gene expression by the transcription and translation regulating within the cell are important in ensuring transcription and translation processes (central dogma) are carried out beneficially. These processes are highly important as the expression of genes directly affect our survival. Some genes continually express to maintain our basic metabolic functions and assist in homeostasis of the body. Other genes are only expressed when required by the cell to participate in the process of cell differentiation, or result from these processes to balance it (University of Leicester, 2014).
DNA location within the cell
:
Prokaryotic- Cytoplasm (free flowing) and bundle together to form a dark patch within the cell known as the nucleoid (Shmoop,2014).
[Can also be found in plasmid DNA form but not all bacteria have this].
Eukaryotic - Nucleus
, Mitochondria
, Chloroplasts (in plants)
Reference List
Adam-Day. S, 2012. Protein structure. Available from: alevelnotes.com/Protein-Structure/61 [Accessed 30 May 2014].
Addgene, 2014. Bacterial transformation. Available from: www.addgene.org/plasmid-protocols/bacterial-transformation/ [Accessed 23 October 2014].
Anderson. P., 2012. AP Biology Lab 6: Molecular Biology. Video. Available from: [Accessed 31 October 2014].
Anderson. P., 2012. Transcription and translation. Video. Available from: [Accessed 3 November 2014].
apsu.edu, 2013. Cell organelles and cytoskeleton. Available from: apbrwww5.apsu.edu/thompsonj/Anatomy%20&%20Physiology/2010/2010%20Exam%20Reviews/Exam%201%20Review/Ch03%20Cell%20Organelles%20&%20Cytoskeleton.htm [Accessed 25 November 2013].
Bailey. R., 2014. Protein synthesis: Messenger RNA modification. Available from: biology.about.com/od/cellularprocesses/ss/protein-synthesis-translation.htm [Accessed 5 November 2014].
Bartha. G., 2014. Transformation efficiency: pGLO. Video. Available from: [Accessed 31 October 2014].
biology.com, 2013. Organelles. Available from: biology.tutorvista.com/animal-and-plant-cells/organelles.html [Accessed 30 November 2013].
biology.com, 2013. Prokaryotes. available from: biology.about.com/od/cellanatomy/ss/prokaryotes.htm [Accessed 30 November 2013].
biologyreference.com, 2013. Golgi. Available from: www.biologyreference.com/Fo-Gr/Golgi.html [Accessed 30 November 2013].
Blaber. M., 2004. Genetic transformation (using bacteria and the pGLO plasmid). Available from: www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/BCH4053l/Lecture07/Lecture07.htm [Accessed 1 November 2014].
Boston University, 2014. Base pairs. Available from: tandem.bu.edu/knex/base.pairs.knex.html [Accessed 11 June 2014].
Brooklyn College, 2014. What are proteins? Available from: academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/biology/bio4fv/page/3d_prot.htm [Accessed 3 November 2014].
Carr. S, 2011. Friedrich Miescher (1844-1895) on nuclein. Available from: www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Miescher_on_nuclein.html [Accessed 28 May 2014].
cliffsnotes.com, 2013. Prokaryote and Eukaryote cell structure. Available from: www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/biology/biology/the-biology-of-cells/prokaryote-and-eukaryote-cell-structure [Accessed 30 November 2013].
cnx.org, 2013. Eukaryotic cells. Available from: cnx.org/content/m47172/1.2/ [Accessed 30 November 2013].
cod.edu, 2004. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Available from: www.cod.edu/people/faculty/fancher/prokeuk.htm [Accessed 30 November 2013].
Cooper. G., 2000. The cell: A molecular approach. 2nd edition. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9914/ [Accessed 1 November 2014].
Diffen, 2014. DNA vs. RNA. Available from: www.diffen.com/difference/DNA_vs_RNA [Accessed 111 June 2014].
diffen.com, 2013. Eukaryotic cell vs. Prokaryotic cell. Available from: www.diffen.com/difference/Eukaryotic_Cell_vs_Prokaryotic_Cell [Accessed 30 November 2013].
DNA learning centre, 2014. Base pairing interactive, interactive 2D animation. Available from: www.dnalc.org/view/15888-Base-pairing-interactive-interactive-2D-animation.html [Accessed 11 June 2014].
Dr. Blaber. M., 2004. Genetic transformation (using bacteria and the pGLO plasmid). Available from: www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/BCH4053l/Lecture07/Lecture07.htm [Accessed 30 October 2014].
emich.edu, 2013. Cells. Available from: people.emich.edu/pbogle/PHED_200/outlines/chapter_03/outline.htm [Accessed 30 November 2013].
Flanagan. E., 2014. Model organisms. Available from: www.fastbleep.com/biology-notes/33/110/815 [Accessed 2 November 2014].
Freeman. H., 2000. Bacterial transformation. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21993/ [Accessed 23 October 2014].
Freeman. W, 2000. Structure of DNA. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21786/ [Accessed 11 June 2014].
Freeman. W, 2000. The three roles of RNA in protein synthesis. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21603/ [Accessed 11 June 2014].
Froger. A., Hall. J., 2007. Transformation of plasmid DNA into E.coli using heat shock method. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2557105/ [Accessed 31 October 2014].
GenMed, 2014. Fundamentals of genetics. Available from: genmed.yolasite.com/fundamentals-of-genetics.php [Accessed 11 June 2014].
Godfrey-Smith. P., Sterelyn. K., 2008. Biological information. Available from: plato.stanford.edu/entries/information-biological/#GenCod [Accessed 3 November 2014].
Gregory. M., 2014. Bacterial transformation lab. Available from: faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20101/bio%20101%20laboratory/bacterial%20transformation/bacteria.htm [Accessed 31 October 2014].
hyperphysics.edu, 2000. Ribosomes. Available from: hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/ribosome.html [Accessed 30 November 2013].
JoVE, 2014. Bacterial transformation: The heat shock method. Video. Available from: www.jove.com/science-education/5059/bacterial-transformation-the-heat-shock-method [Accessed 31 October 2014].
Kimball. J, 2006. Base pairing. Available from: users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/BasePairing.html [Accessed 11 June 2014].
Kovach. T., 2013. The central dogma of molecular biology. Video. Available from: [Accessed 2 November 2014].
ks.edu, 2008. Bacterial flagellum. Available from: www.ks.uiuc.edu/Research/flagellum/ [Accessed 30 November 2013].
Learnsomescience.com, 2010. Prokaryotic cell arrangements & anatomy. Available from: learnsomescience.com/microbiology/prokaryotes-bacteria-and-prokaryotic-cell-anatomy/ [Accessed 2 December 2013].
methuen.ma.us, 2007. Structure and function. Available from: www.methuen.k12.ma.us/mnmelan/chapter_7.cell%20structure%20and%20function.htm [Accessed 2 December 2013].
methuen.ma.us, 2007. Structure and function. Available from: www.methuen.k12.ma.us/mnmelan/chapter_7.cell%20structure%20and%20function.htm [Accessed 2 December 2013].
micro.magnet.edu, 2013. Mitochondria. Available from: micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/mitochondria/mitochondria.html [Accessed 30 November 2013].
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